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William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (April 1564 (baptised) – 23 April 1616) was an English poet,playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world’s pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England’snational poet, and the «Bard of Avon». His extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two longnarrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he marriedAnne Hathaway, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part-owner of aplaying company called the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, later known as the King’s Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare’s private life survive, which has stimulated considerable speculation about such matters as his physical appearance, sexuality, and religious beliefs, and whether the works attributed to him were written by others.Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, and these are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, includingHamlet, Othello, King Lear, and Macbeth, considered some of the finest works in the English language.] In his last phase, he wrotetragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and accuracy during his lifetime. In 1623, John Heminges and Henry Condell, two friends and fellow actors of Shakespeare, published the First Folio, a posthumous collected edition of his dramatic works that included all but two of the plays now recognised as Shakespeare’s. It was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as «not of an age, but for all time». In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been repeatedly adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship and performance. His plays remain highly popular, and are constantly studied, performed, and reinterpreted in diverse cultural and political contexts throughout the world.
Portraits of Shakespeare depict him with dark brown, reddish, or black hair billowing down to the lobes of the ears or shoulders and with a carefully trimmed mustache and a receding hairline. Most of them present him with a closely cropped beard rising from the chin to the level of the lower lip or to ear level. However, the 1623 First Folio portrait depicts him without a beard. The facial features of that portrait differ markedly from those in the other portraits, such as the John Sanders Portrait and the John Soest Stratford Portrait. None of the portraits gives any indication that Shakespeare had deformities, scars, or other types of disfigurements. However, the memorial bust of him in Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon indicates that he may have had a suntanned face.
Portraits of Shakespeare (head and shoulders) suggest that he was of average weight. There are no signs of a double chin or fleshy cheeks. However, a bust of him in Holy Trinity Church at Stratford-Upon-Avon depicts a stout Shakespeare. The padded jacket he is wearing could account for the portliness. It is also possible that he gained weight in his later years or that the artist failed to depict him as he was.
Because Shakespeare acted in his own plays and those of other prominent authors, such as Ben Jonson, he probably possessed a reasonably good voice. At the Globe Theatre, actors had to project their voices to 2,000 to 3,000 people, up to 1,000 of whom stood in a yard in front of the stage talking when they became bored and booing or hissing when the performances displeased them.
Because acting required Shakespeare to walk, gesture, grimace, and use other body language, he apparently had no serious handicaps that limited his movement or detracted from his performance. When traveling back and forth between Stratford and London, he may have ridden a horse. His plays indicate that he had a sportsman’s knowledge of the outdoors. The status of his general health in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood was probably good or at least adequate, considering that he was apparently hale enough to meet the demands of being a spouse, father, writer, actor, and businessman. Whether he was susceptible to frequent infections is unknown. However, he managed to elude the ravages of the London plague between 1592 and 1594, a period during which he wrote his sonnets. Working in the theatre must have placed heavy demands on him, for he presented his plays not only at the Globe Theatre but also at inns, courtyards, royal palaces, and private residences. He was also a co-owner of the Globe. There can be little doubt that his brain functioned well in terms of intellectual undertakings. After all, several of his plays~ez_ndash~including Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, Macbeth, and The Tempest~ez_ndash~rank at the top of the list of greatest dramas in English literature.
Shakespeare wrote his plays with a quill dipped in ink. Therefore, he probably had at least one good hand and arm~ez_ndash~and considering what has been already said about his required movements as an actor~ez_ndash~probably two good hands and arms. He had five digits on both hands, according to the sculpture in the church.
By lamplight or the natural light of often-misty London days, Shakespeare had to write, read, and memorize to meet his responsibilities as a writer, an actor, and a businessman. It is likely, therefore, that his eyesight was adequate into middle age. However, it is possible that his eyesight began to fail him in his forties. In most adults, visual acuity declines in the middle years, frequently as a result of presbyopia, a condition marked by reduced ability of the lens of the eye to bring close objects into focus. Presbyopia is a form a farsightedness, characterized by the ability to see distant objects better than near ones. In Shakespeare~ez_rsquo~s day, eyeglasses were available to correct both farsightedness and nearsightedness (the ability to see near objects better than distant ones). It was the invention of the printing press, and the consequent publication of books in the mid-15th Century, that created a market for eyeglasses. Whether Shakespeare developed presbyopia or any other eye condition is unknown. If he did develop an eye condition, it is possible that the optical technology of his day was advanced enough to remedy it. On the other hand, if the technology was inadequate, Shakespeare would have had difficulty reading and writing. Scholars have always been puzzled by why Shakespeare decided to retire in his late forties. Could it be that he suffered from an untreatable eye condition? That possibility exists.
William Shakespeare lived in England during the Elizabethan era and wore clothes in the Elizabethan style. For the rich and famous, the clothing of this era was characterized by bright colors, elaborate trimmings and ostentatious padding.

Early life William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, the daughter of an affluent landowning farmer. He was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth remains unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April, Saint George’s Day.
This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholar’s mistake, has proved appealing to biographers, since Shakespeare died 23 April 1616.He was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. Although no attendance records for the period survive, most biographers agree that Shakespeare was probably educated at the King’s New School in Stratford, a free school chartered in 1553, about a quarter-mile (400 m) from his home. Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but grammar school curricula were largely similar, the basic Latin text was standardised by royal decree, and the school would have provided an intensive education in grammar based upon Latin classical authors.John Shakespeare’s house, believed to be Shakespeare’s birthplace, inStratford-upon-Avon At the age of 18, Shakespeare married the 26-year-old Anne Hathaway. The consistory court of theDiocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaway’s neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage.The ceremony may have been arranged in some haste, since the Worcester chancellor allowed the marriage banns to be read once instead of the usual three times, and six months after the marriage Anne gave birth to a daughter, Susanna, baptised 26 May 1583. Twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596. Shakespeare’s coat of arms, featuring a spear as a pun on the family name. After the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the ‘complaints bill’ of a law case before the Queen’s Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589. Scholars refer to the years between 1585 and 1592 as Shakespeare’s «lost years.Biographers attempting to account for this period have reported many apocryphal stories. Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare’s first biographer, recounted a Stratford legend that Shakespeare fled the town for London to escape prosecution for deer poaching in the estate of local squire Thomas Lucy. Shakespeare is also supposed to have taken his revenge on Lucy by writing a scurrilous ballad about him. Another 18th-century story has Shakespeare starting his theatrical career minding the horses of theatre patrons in London.JohnAubrey reported that Shakespeare had been a country schoolmaster.Some 20th-century scholars have suggested that Shakespeare may have been employed as a schoolmaster by Alexander Hoghton of Lancashire, a Catholic landowner who named a certain «William Shakeshafte» in his will.Little evidence substantiates such stories other than hearsay collected after his death, and Shakeshafte was a common name in the Lancashire area.


London and theatrical career «All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players: they have their exits and their entrances; and one man in his time plays many parts…» , Act II, Scene 7, 139–42. It is not known exactly when Shakespeare began writing, but contemporary allusions and records of performances show that several of his plays were on the London stage by 1592.By then, he was sufficiently well known in London to be attacked in print by the playwright Robert Greene in hisGroats-Worth of Wit: …there is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with hisTiger’s heart wrapped in a Player’s hide, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you: and being an absoluteJohannes factotum, is in his own conceit the only Shake-scene in a country.[30] Scholars differ on the exact meaning of these words, but most agree that Greene is accusing Shakespeare of reaching above his rank in trying to match university-educated writers such as Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe and Greene himself (the «university wits»). The italicised phrase parodying the line «Oh, tiger’s heart wrapped in a woman’s hide» from Shakespeare’s Henry VI, Part 3, along with the pun «Shake-scene», identifies Shakespeare as Greene’s target. Here Johannes Factotum—»Jack of all trades»— means a second-rate tinkerer with the work of others, rather than the more common «universal genius».Greene’s attack is the earliest surviving mention of Shakespeare’s career in the theatre. Biographers suggest that his career may have begun any time from the mid-1580s to just before Greene’s remarks. From 1594, Shakespeare’s plays were performed by only the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, a company owned by a group of players, including Shakespeare, that soon became the leading playing company in London. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, the company was awarded a royal patent by the new king, James I, and changed its name to the King’s Men. In 1599, a partnership of company members built their own theatre on the south bank of the River Thames, which they called the Globe. In 1608, the partnership also took over the Blackfriars indoor theatre. Records of Shakespeare’s property purchases and investments indicate that the company made him a wealthy man. In 1597, he bought the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place, and in 1605, he invested in a share of the parish tithes in Stratford. Some of Shakespeare’s plays were published in quarto editions from 1594. By 1598, his name had become a selling point and began to appear on the title pages. Shakespeare continued to act in his own and other plays after his success as a playwright. The 1616 edition ofBen Jonson’s Works names him on the cast lists for Every Man in His Humour (1598) and Sejanus His Fall (1603). The absence of his name from the 1605 cast list for Jonson’s Volpone is taken by some scholars as a sign that his acting career was nearing its end. TheFirst Folio of 1623, however, lists Shakespeare as one of «the Principal Actors in all these Plays», some of which were first staged afterVolpone, although we cannot know for certain which roles he played. In 1610, John Davies of Hereford wrote that «good Will» played «kingly» roles.In 1709, Rowe passed down a tradition that Shakespeare played the ghost of Hamlet’s father. Later traditions maintain that he also played Adam in As You Like It and the Chorus in Henry V, though scholars doubt the sources of the information. Shakespeare divided his time between London and Stratford during his career. In 1596, the year before he bought New Place as his family home in Stratford, Shakespeare was living in the parish of St. Helen’s, Bishopsgate, north of the River Thames.He moved across the river to Southwark by 1599, the year his company constructed the Globe Theatre there.By 1604, he had moved north of the river again, to an area north of St Paul’s Cathedral with many fine houses. There he rented rooms from a French Huguenot named Christopher Mountjoy, a maker of ladies’ wigs and other headgear.

Sonnets:

Published in 1609, the Sonnets were the last of Shakespeare’s non-dramatic works to be printed. Scholars are not certain when each of the 154 sonnets was composed, but evidence suggests that Shakespeare wrote sonnets throughout his career for a private readership. Even before the two unauthorised sonnets appeared in The Passionate Pilgrim in 1599, Francis Meres had referred in 1598 to Shakespeare’s «sugred Sonnets among his private friends».Few analysts believe that the published collection follows Shakespeare’s intended sequence. He seems to have planned two contrasting series: one about uncontrollable lust for a married woman of dark complexion (the «dark lady»), and one about conflicted love for a fair young man (the «fair youth»). It remains unclear if these figures represent real individuals, or if the authorial «I» who addresses them represents Shakespeare himself, though Wordsworth believed that with the sonnets «Shakespeare unlocked his heart». «Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate…» —Lines from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18. The 1609 edition was dedicated to a «Mr. W.H.», credited as «the only begetter» of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare himself or by the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the foot of the dedication page; nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was, despite numerous theories, or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication. Critics praise the Sonnets as a profound meditation on the nature of love, sexual passion, procreation, death, and time.

Later years and death Rowe was the first biographer to record the tradition, repeated by Johnson, that Shakespeare retired to Stratford ‘some years before his death’. He was still working as an actor in London in 1608; in an answer to the sharers’ petition in 1635 Cuthbert Burbage stated that after purchasing the lease of the Blackfriars Theatre in 1608 from Henry Evans, the King’s Men ‘placed men players’ there, ‘which wereHeminges, Condell, Shakespeare, etc.’. However it is perhaps relevant that the bubonic plague raged in London throughout 1609. The London public playhouses were repeatedly closed during extended outbreaks of the plague (a total of over 60 months closure between May 1603 and February 1610), which meant there was often no acting work. Retirement from all work was uncommon at that time.Shakespeare continued to visit London during the years 1611–1614. In 1612, he was called as a witness in Bellott v. Mountjoy, a court case concerning the marriage settlement of Mountjoy’s daughter, Mary. In March 1613 he bought a gatehouse in the former Blackfriarspriory;and from November 1614 he was in London for several weeks with his son-in-law, John Hall.[ After 1610, Shakespeare wrote fewer plays, and none are attributed to him after 1613. His last three plays were collaborations, probably with John Fletcher,who succeeded him as the house playwright of the King’s Men.Shakespeare’s funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon. Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, at the age of 52.He died within a month of signing his will, a document which he begins by describing himself as being in «perfect health». No extant contemporary source explains how or why he died. Half a century later, John Ward, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: «Shakespeare, Drayton and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted,» not an impossible scenario, since Shakespeare knew Jonson and Drayton. Of the tributes from fellow authors, one refers to his relatively sudden death: «We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went’st so soon/From the world’s stage to the grave’s tiring room.»

2.Tattooing,Body Painting and Piercing
A tattoo is a design that is permanently etched in the skin using needles and ink. The word tattoo is derived from the Tahitian term «tatua,» which means «to mark.» Tattoos have been displayed by people of all cultures for centuries, but they have only recently gained social acceptance in the United States. History Adding decorative illustrations to skin has been a popular practice since ancient times. Clay dolls have been found that indicate the Egyptians used tattoos as early as 4000 b.c. Over the centuries, different forms of tattoo art have been practiced by many different world cultures. For example, around 500 b.c., the Japanese began tattooing for both cosmetic and religious purposes. They even used tattoos to brand known criminals as part of their punishment. The Japanese method involved puncturing the skin with fine metal needles to create multicolor designs. Eskimos tribes developed their own technique using bone needles to pull soot-covered thread through the skin. In the 1700s, Captain James Cook traveled to Tahitia and observed the natives’ skin marking customs. In his book The Voyage in H.M. Bark Endeavor, Cook wrote, «they stain their bodies by indentings, or pricking the skin with small instruments made of bone, cut into short teeth; which indentiскачанные файлыngs they fill up with dark-blue or black mixture prepared from the smoke of an oily nut. This operation, which is called by the natives ‘tatua’ leaves an indelible mark on the skin.» In the years after Cook’s voyages, sailors visiting the Polynesian islands spread the Tahitian ritual around the Pacific. The popularity of tattoos continued to grow over the last 200 years. In the nineteenth century, tattoos became popular in England among the upper-class. For example, Lady Randolph Churchill, Winston Churchill’s mother, had a snake tattooed around her wrist. In the United States, tattoos have been historically associated with sailors, motorcyclists, and prison inmates because tattoo shops were considered dangerous and socially unacceptable. However, since the 1980s this mindset has changed considerably and tattoos are becoming increasingly popular among men and women of all ages. Design A tattoo design is called «flash» and it can consist of any sort of artwork from simple symbols or letters to detailed sketches or caricature. Flash can be composed of one color or many. Tattoo parlors display a large assortment of flash on their walls with the larger ones having as many as 10,000 to choose from. In addition, clients may bring in their own design or they may work with the artist to develop custom flash. When selecting a design it is important to consult with the artist to establish an appropriate size and location for the tattoo. The artist can also help decide on color schemes that will determine the price of the final art. Care should also be taken to identify a reputable tattoo parlor that follows the guidelines set forth by the Association of Professional Tattooists (APT). According to the APT, the tattooists should follow these precautionary measures: have the client fill out consent forms before beginning the procedure; wash and dry their hands immediately before and after working on the customer; wear latex gloves at all times; only use instruments that have been sterilized in an autoclave; clean all surfaces with a disinfectant or biocidal cleanser; and dispose of used tissues and other waste material in a special leak-proof container to limit the transmittal of blood borne diseases. Raw Materials and Equipment The flash, or tattoo design, is simply a sketch or a piece of line art that can be used to create a tattoo. Flash may be shown in color or in black and white and they are displayed in the tattoo parlor either in books or along the walls. Stencil A stencil is a copy of a flash that is made on a special copying machine. The stencil allows the inked outline of the design to be transferred to the skin so it can be traced by the artist. Ink Tattoo supply houses sell special inks that are used to create tattoos. They are available in a variety of colors and are typically packaged in 4 oz plastic squeeze bottles so they are easily dispensed. These inks are liquid dispersions of pigments that, in the United States, are approved by the Food and Drug Administration. The ink consists of dyes derived from metal components. For this reason, allergic reactions to the type of ink used is possible. Tattoo Machine The machine consists of a hand held needle gun connected to a power unit that provides pressure to move the needles. The needles may be of different sizes and shapes and are bundled together on a needle bar in different patterns depending on the requirements of the artwork. The unit is attached to a power supply that is activated by depressing a foot pedal on the floor beside the work station. When the pedal is depressed the tattoo needle bar moves up and down very quickly like the needle on a tiny sewing machine.

Miscellaneous supplies During the course of the procedure the artist may use a variety of additional supplies including skin disinfectants, disposable razors, bandages, petroleum jelly, and biocidal cleaning supplies. The Manufacturing ProcessBefore the process can begin, the artist should have the client sign a waiver that indicates they are over 18, understand the procedure is permanent, and realize it will create an open wound or abrasion. After the waiver is signed, the tattooist inspects the skin to ensure it is free from cuts and scrapes. He or she then sprays the skin with an antiseptic to kill germs and reduce the possibility of infection. The artist then shaves the area and disposes of the razor immediately afterward.When the skin is ready, the artist prepares the design to be copied onto the skin. This is done using a copy machine to make a color copy of the flash that is the proper size. The copier uses a special carbon-type paper that allows the design to be transferred to skin. The client exposes the target area and the artist peels the design off the backing paper and applies it to the proper location. This creates an ink outline of the design on the skin that is used to guide the artist in creating the actual tattoo. The client must be careful not to touch the outline or to otherwise disturb the skin because the stencil can be accidentally smeared. At this point, the client can look at the design (in a mirror if necessary) to confirm it is correct. If there is something wrong with the stencil it can be washed off and applied again. Once the stencil is completed, the tattooist spreads a thin layer of ointment, such as petroleum jelly, over the area to be tattooed.The artist directs the client to sit or lay in 3 a position that exposes the skin to be tattooed. The client may recline in a dentist-type chair that can lay flat to aid in exposing the back or buttocks. The position must be comfortable for the client but must also provide a comfortable working position for the artist who typically sits on a stool next to the client’s chair.Next, the artist prepares the tattoo inks on a pallet, which is a plastic tray with a series of divots to hold the ink. The artist fills several of these wells with ink; black is typically used for the outline color. He or she then attaches a needle bar with three to five needles to the tattoo machine. The needles are dipped into the ink well to suck up the colorant and the artist then activates the needle gun with the foot pedal and begins to trace the stencil. Because the needles are breaking the skin for the first time in this step, it is a very painful process. The needles deposit the dye in the second layer of the skin which is about 0.64-0.16 in (1.6-0.4 cm) deep. This process may take five minutes to an hour depending on the size and complexity of the design. The skin may be slightly numb by the time outlining iscomplete.After the stencil is outlined the artist fills the ink wells with the colors to be used to finish the tattoo. He or she then connects a shader needle bar to the tattoo machine. This shader bar may contain five to thirteen flat needles or five to seven round needles. It is designed to apply color over a larger area to fill in the outline. The tattooist guides the tattooing machine over the skin coloring in all sections of the outline. He or she frequently stops the needle to wipe the blood and ink off the skin. The amount of bleeding caused by the needle penetration and the degree of pain experienced varies from person to person. The shading operation may take an hour or several hours depending on the complexity and size of the design. Shading is complete when the entire surface of the tattoo has colored in. The key to ensuring a successful tattoo is taking care of it properly in the first few hours and days. Immediately after the tattoo is finished, the area is washed with a mild soap solution and then covered with an antibiotic ointment and a gauze bandage. After allowing the area to heal for about two hours, a bandage should be removed so dried blood can be washed away. For the first week, apply a vitamin lotion to the area daily. After that, apply a regular, mild skin lotion to keep the tattooed area moist until the wound has finished healing. The affected area should be kept out of hot tubs, swimming pools, and hot baths until the skin has healed fully. Submersion in water too soon can ruin the tattoo. In general, taking care of the tattoo is like treating a minor burn. It must be kept clean and moist, and will experience the same sort of scabbing and crusting. The initial healing process usually takes about two weeks. Tattoo Removal It is not uncommon for someone to change their mind after a period of time and to want to have their tattoo removed. Tattoo removal is possible but the process is difficult, expensive, and not fully successful. In the past, a wire brush was used to sand the skin and destroy the first and second layers where the ink resided. Salt solutions were also used to leach out the ink or acid was used to burn the skin away. All of these methods are painful and not very effective. Even if the tattoo can be removed, the affected area may lose its ability to produce normal skin pigment and some scarring may occur. Recently, lasers have been used to remove tattoos because they can destroy most of the ink pigments and cause very little scarring. Still, the process is expensive and the skin may never produce its normal pigmentation again. The Future Tattoos continue to grow in popularity as a method of self expression. It is also anticipated that tattoos will be used increasingly for medical and non-medical cosmetic applications. For example, tattoos can be used to obscure the reddish purple birthmarks known as «port-wine» stains. They may also be used to improve the skin color of patients with vitaligo, a disorder that causes the melanocytes in the skin to shut down and stop producing normal skin color. Tattooing is also being used to create permanent makeup, such as eye liner or blush, for burned or disfigured victims.
Body painting
Body painting, or sometimes , is a form of body art. Unlike tattoo and other forms of body art, body painting is temporary, painted onto the human skin, and lasts for only several hours, or at most (in the case of Mehndi or «henna tattoo») a couple of weeks. Body painting that is limited to the face is known as . Body painting is also referred to as (a form of) «temporary tattoo»; large scale or full-body painting is more commonly referred to as body painting, while smaller or more detailed work can sometimes be referred to as temporary tattoos.
Body painting with clay and other natural pigments existed in most, if not all, tribalist cultures. Often worn during ceremonies, it still survives in this ancient form among the indigenous people of Australia, New Zealand, the Pacific islands and parts of Africa. A semi-permanent form of body painting known as Mehndi, using dyes made of henna(hence also known rather erroneously as «henna tattoo»), was and is still practiced in India and the Middle East, especially on brides. Since the late 1990s, Mehndi has become popular amongst young women in the Western world. Many indigenous peoples of Central and South America paint Jagua Tattoos, or designs with Genipa americanajuice on their bodies. Indigenous peoples of South America traditionally use annatto, huito, or wet charcoal to decorate their faces and bodies. Huito is semi-permanent, and it generally takes weeks for this black dye to fade.[1] Actors and clowns around the world have painted their faces—and sometimes bodies—for centuries, and continue to do so today. More subdued form of face paints for everyday occasions evolved into the cosmetics we know today.
Body piercing
Body piercing, a form of body modification, is the practice of puncturing or cutting a part of the human body, creating an opening in which jewellery may be worn. The word piercing can refer to the act or practice of body piercing, or to an opening in the body created by this act or practice. Although the history of body piercing is obscured by popular misinformation and by a lack of scholarly reference, ample evidence exists to document that it has been practiced in various forms by both sexes since ancient times throughout the world. Ear piercing and nose piercing have been particularly widespread and are well represented in historical records and among grave goods. The oldest mummified remains ever discovered were sporting earrings, attesting to the existence of the practice more than 5,000 years ago. Nose piercing is documented as far back as 1500 BC. Piercings of these types have been documented globally, while lip and tongue piercingswere historically found in African and American tribal cultures. Nipple and genital piercing have also been practiced by various cultures, with nipple piercing dating back at least to Ancient Rome while genital piercing is described in Ancient India c. 320 to 550 CE. The history of navel piercing is less clear. The practice of body piercing has waxed and waned in Western culture, but it has experienced an increase of popularity since World War II, with sites other than the ears gaining subcultural popularity in the 1970s and spreading to mainstream in the 1990s. The reasons for piercing or not piercing are varied. Some people pierce for religious or spiritual reasons, while others pierce for self-expression, for aesthetic value, for sexual pleasure, to conform to their culture or to rebel against it. Some forms of piercing remain controversial, particularly when applied to youth. The display or placement of piercings have been restricted by schools, employers and religious groups. In spite of the controversy, some people have practiced extreme forms of body piercing, with Guinness bestowing World Records on individuals with hundreds and even thousands of permanent and temporary piercings. Contemporary body piercing practices emphasize the use of safe body piercing materials, frequently utilizing specialized tools developed for the purpose. Body piercing is an invasive procedure with some risks, including allergic reaction, infection, excessive scarring and unanticipated physical injuries, but such precautions as sanitary piercing procedures and careful aftercare are emphasized to minimize the likelihood of encountering serious problems. The healing time required for a body piercing may vary widely according to placement, from as little as a month for some genital piercings to as much as two full years for the navel.
Nose piercing
EditKhond woman with ear, septum andnostril piercings Nose piercing also has a long history. c. 1500 BCE, the Vedas refer to Lakshmi’s nose piercings, but modern practice in India is believed to have spread from the Middle Eastern nomadic tribes by route of theMughal emperors in the 16th century.[ It remains customary for Indian Hindu women of childbearing age to wear a nose stud, usually in the left nostril, due to the nostril’s association with the female reproductive organs in Ayurvedic medicine. This piercing is sometimes done the night before the woman marries. In Genesis 24:22, Abraham’s servant gave Rebecca a nose ring. Nose piercing has been practiced by theBedouin tribes of the Middle East and the Berber and Beja peoples of Africa, as well as Australian Aborigines. Many Native American and Alaskan tribes practiced septum piercing. It was popular among the Aztecs, the Mayans and the tribes of New Guinea, who adorned their pierced noses with bones and feathers to symbolize wealth and (among men) virility. The name of the Nez Perce tribe was derived from the practice, though nose piercing was not common within the tribe.The Aztecs, Mayans andIncas wore gold septum rings for adornment, with the practice continued to this day by the Kuna of Panama. Nose piercing also remains popular in Pakistan and Bangladesh and is practiced in a number of Middle Eastern and Arab countries.Piercings of the lip and tongueEditA Mursi woman of Ethiopia Lip piercing and lip stretching were historically found in African and American tribal cultures. Pierced adornments of the lip, or labrets, were sported by the Tlingit as well as peoples of Papua New Guinea andAmazonia. Aztecs and Mayans also wore labrets, while the Dogon people of Mali and the Nuba of Ethiopia wore rings. The practice of stretching the lips by piercing them and inserting plates or plugswas found throughout Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica and South America as well as among some of the tribes of the Pacific Northwest and Africa. In some parts of Malawi, it was quite common for women to adorn their lips with a lip disc called a «pelele» that by means of gradual enlargement from childhood could reach several inches of diameter and would eventually alter the occlusion of the jaw. Such lip stretching is still practiced in some places. Women of the Mursi of Ethiopia wear lip rings on occasion that may reach 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in diameter.In some Pre-Columbian and North American cultures, labrets were seen as a status symbol.They were the oldest form of high status symbol among the Haida women, though the practice of wearing them died out due to Western influence. Tongue piercing was practiced by the Aztec, Olmec and Mayan cultures as a ritual symbol. Wall paintings highlight a ritual of the Mayans during which nobility would pierce their tongues with thorns, collecting the blood on bark which would be burned in honor of theMayan gods.It was also practiced by the Haida, Kwakiutl and Tlingit, as well as the Fakirs and Sufis of the Middle East. Nipple, navel and genital piercingEditNavel piercing may have been practiced in Egypt, but its history is disputed. The history of nipple piercing, navel piercing, and genital piercing has been particularly misrepresented by printed works continuing to repeat myths that were originally promulgated by Malloy in the pamphletBody & Genital Piercing in Brief. For example, according to Malloy’s colleague Jim Ward, Malloy claimed navel piercing was popular among ancient Egyptian aristocrats and was depicted in Egyptian statuary, a claim that is widely repeated.Other sources say there are no records to support a historical practice for navel piercing. However, records do exist that refer to practices of nipple and genital piercing in various cultures prior to the 20th century. Kama Sutra, dated to the Gupta Empire of Ancient India, describes genital piercing to permit sexual enhancement by inserting pins and other objects into the foreskin of the penis. The Dayaktribesmen of Borneo passed a shard of bone through their glans for the opposite reason, to diminish their sexual activity.In the Talmud (Tractate Shabbat 24a), there may be mention of a genital piercing in the probition against the kumaz, which medieval French Talmudiccommenter Rashi interpreted as a chastity piercing for women. Other interpreters have, however, suggested that the kumaz was rather a pendant shaped like a vulva or a girdle.Nipple piercing may have been a sign of masculinity for the soldiers of Rome. Nipple piercing has also been connected to rites of passage for both British and American sailors who had traveled beyond a significant latitude and longitude. Western women of the 14th century sometimes sported pierced as well as rouged nipples left visible by the low-cut dresses fashionable in the day.
It is widely reported that in the 1890s, nipple rings called «bosom rings» resurfaced as a fashion statement among women of the West, who would wear them on one or both sides, but if such a trend existed, it was short-lived


If People Lived Longer

Will it be better for us to live longer as scientists have discovered to do it with genes technology. They say that it is possible to turn off genes that cause aging and diseases. I’m against this scientific project, because when people live longer, they will be tired of life. When people live more than average age, then the humanity will be in great need of more energy, water, food, oxygen but there are not enough of them, on our planet. People will start to destroy the Planet, they will pollute the environment, as a result of food problem people will destroy the forests and animals in it, to get fuel and food, this will destroy ecology, in this way we can interfere the balance in nature. If humans become immortal, then they finally destroy the Planet. Though scientists are able to do scientific revolution, they have no right to disturb the rules of nature

Christmas

Christmas is an annual festival commemorating the birth of Jesus Christ, observed most commonly on December 25 as a religious and cultural celebration among billions of people around the world. A feast central to the Christian liturgical year, it is prepared for by the season of Advent or Nativity Fast and is prolonged by the Octave of Christmas and further by the season of Christmastide. Christmas Day is a public holiday in many of the world's nations, is celebrated culturally by a large number of non-Christian people, and is an integral part of the Christmas and holiday season.
The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, and secular themes and origins. Popular modern customs of the holiday include gift giving, completing an Advent calendar or Advent wreath, Christmas music and caroling, an exchange of Christmas cards, church services, a special meal, and the display of various Christmas decorations, including Christmas trees, Christmas lights, nativity scenes, garlands, wreaths, mistletoe, and holly. In addition, several closely related and often interchangeable figures, known as Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Saint Nicholas, and Christ kind, are associated with bringing gifts to children during the Christmas season and have their own body of traditions and lore. Because gift-giving and many other aspects of the Christmas festival involve heightened economic activity, the holiday has become a significant event and a key sales period for retailers and businesses. The economic impact of Christmas is a factor that has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world.
Many people celebrate the Christmas holidays in December 25, but we Armenians celebrate the Christmas holidays January 6, Catholics, because we are followers of the Armenian Apostolic Church. I love celebrate Christmas holidays in my country and traditional ways. In Christmas holidays I going the church and participate in the liturgy.
Every year I celebrate the coming year in the circle of my family at home, I have never celebrated New Year in foreign countries. We always decorate Christmas tree in Christmas Eve; prepare Armenian New Year’s traditional dishes. And during next 4-5 days, we visit our relatives and friends.


A.
1.-B
 2.-A
 3.-C
 4.-A
  5.-A

B.
1.-variety
2.-possiby
3.-look
4.-dwellers
5.-animals

C.
41.-1,3
42.-1,2,5
43.-1,2,4
44.-3,4
45.-2,3,5

D.
20.
A)-4
B)-5
C)-3
D)-1

21.
A)-2
B)-1
C)-3
D)-5

22.
A)-5
B)-1
C)-4
D)-2

23.
A)-4
B)-1
C)-3
D)-2


E
42.-
a-3
b-4
c-5
d-2

43.
a-3
b-4
c-6
d-5

44.
a-5
b-3
c-1

d-4

1.
“I had another bad dream,” she told her fiancé. “It was about you again. You and your ex-girlfriend were kissing. I yelled at you to stop  it. You looked right at me, and then you  at me! She laughed, too. Then you both laughed  back to kissing. I tried not to watch, went when I covered my eyes, something pulled my but away. I tried to leave, but my feet hands glued to the ground. Finally, I woke up. were course, it was very difficult to get back to sleep.

“I had to drive home from Las  this morning. It’s a wonder I didn’t crash vegas times. Instead of seeing traffic in front of 50, all I saw was you and her. I me’t take any more dreams like this. We’re going can have to break up. We can be friends, to just friends. That way, I won’t be jealous but, and I won’t have these bad dreams anymore.”

anymore didn’t you call me up and tell me why your dream?” he asked. “They say that the about you talk about bad dreams, the sooner you’ll more having them.”

She disagreed. She thought that the only solution was to break up and be just friends. She loved him, but these dreams had become so frequent that she was actually afraid to go to sleep. She was losing weight and having stomachaches from the stress.

He didn’t know what to do. He wanted her to have pleasant dreams. He wanted her to have a life without stress. He wanted her to be his wife. This was it, she 
repeated; if she had just one more bad dream, they were through. He squeezed her hand, but said noting.


2. My grandad had long career. He starded worknas an assistant and worked his way  to the top. He was very  successful  and he saved the company from disaster many times.when he was in charege he was never bossy .He understood people and all the employess admired him. He was an  engneer ,which is quite a difficult occupation ,and for 40 years he worked on many projects.Finally, he reached 65, wich was the offical age of retirement in his company.He was very well known to other enginners - you might even say he was famous! He was always very busy when he was working ,but now he's  retired he's got a lot more time to spend with his grandchildren!

3.

Hello, my name is Karen, I am 14 years old,  studying Mxitar Sebastatsi, I am involved in music and sports. I took part in many concerts and competitions. and  I have many diplomas and medals.I want to become a well-known musician and play feature.

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